Rearuh

A typical 60 km/h speed limit sign used in Australia

A typical 50 mph speed limit sign in the United States

A typical 50 mph speed limit sign in the United Kingdom and 50 km/h speed limit sign in Hong Kong

Road speed limits are used in most countries to set the maximum (or minimum in some cases) speed at which road vehicles may legally travel on particular stretches of road. Speed limits may be variable and in some places speed is unlimited (e.g. on some Autobahn sections in Germany). Speed limits are normally indicated on a traffic sign. Speed limits are commonly set by the legislative bodies of nations or provincial governments and enforced by national or regional police or judicial bodies. Even with the minimum speed limit, that violator is punished.^[1]

The first maximum speed limit was the 10 mph (16 km/h) limit introduced in the United Kingdom in 1861. The highest posted speed limit in the world is 160 km/h (99 mph), which applies to some motorways in UAE.^[2] However, some roads have no speed limit for certain classes of vehicles. Best known are Germany's less congested Autobahns,^[3] where automobile drivers have no mandated maximum speed. Measurements from the German state of Brandenburg in 2006 showed average speeds of 142 km/h (88 mph) on a 6-lane section of autobahn in free-flowing conditions.^[4]Rural roads on the Isle of Man^[5] and the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh,^[6]Maharashtra,^[7] and Telangana,^[8] also lack speed limits.

In Europe, speed limits are considered as part of the speed management policy.^[9]

Speed limits are usually set to attempt to cap road traffic speed; there are several reasons for wanting to do this. It is often done with an intention to improve road traffic safety and reduce the number of road traffic casualties from traffic collisions. In their World report on road traffic injury prevention report, the World Health Organization (WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in road casualties. (The WHO estimated that some 1.2 million people were killed and 50 million injured on the roads around the world in 2004.)^{[n 1]} Speed limits may also be set in an attempt to reduce the environmental impact of road traffic (vehicle noise, vibration, emissions) and to satisfy local community wishes for streets usable by people out of cars. Some cities have reduced limits to as little as 30 km/h (19 mph) for both safety and efficiency reasons.^[10] However, it has also been shown that in some circumstances changing a speed limit has little effect on the average speed of cars.^[11]

In situations where the natural road speed is considered too high by governments, notably in urban areas where speed limits below 50 km/h (31 mph) are used then traffic calming is often also used. For some classes of vehicle, speed limiters may be mandated to enforce compliance.

Since their introduction, speed limits have been opposed by some motoring advocacy groups.

History

Historic New Hampshire speed limit sign

The United Kingdom Stage Carriage Act 1832 first introduced the offense of endangering the safety of a passenger or person by 'furious driving'.^[12] The first numeric speed limits were created in the UK by a series of Locomotive Acts (1861, 1865 and 1878); the 1861 Act introduced a UK speed limit of 10 mph (16 km/h) on open roads in town, reduced to 2 mph (3 km/h) in towns and 4 mph (6 km/h) in rural areas by the 1865 'red flag act'. The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896, which raised the speed limit to 14 mph (23 km/h) (being the estimated speed of a horse being driven 'furiously') is celebrated to this day by the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run.

The first person to be convicted of speeding is believed to be Walter Arnold of East Peckham, Kent, who on 28 January 1896 was fined for speeding at 8 mph (13 km/h). He was fined 1 shilling plus costs.^[13][14][15]

In the UK 20 mph speed was allowed in 1903.^[16]

In Australia, during the early 20th century, there were people reported for "furious driving" offences. One conviction in 1905 cited furiously driving 20 mph (32 km/h) when passing a tram traveling at half that speed.^[17]

In the 1960s, in continental Europe, some speed limit were established based on the V85 speed, (so that 85% of drivers respect this speed).^[16]

Later Sweden defined the Vision Zero program.^[16]

Regulations

Speed limit sign in Germany, showing a 60 km/h restriction. Signs in other European countries are similar but make use of different fonts and sizes

Most jurisdictions use the metric speed unit of kilometers per hour for speed limits, while some, primarily the United States and the United Kingdom, use speed limits given in miles per hour. There is an ongoing discussion as to whether they should follow the lead of other countries and switch to using metric units (see Metrication in the United Kingdom and Metrication in the United States).

Basic rule

Main article: Basic Speed Law or Rule.

Vienna Convention on Road Traffic

In countries bounded by Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968 & 1977), article 13 defines a basic rule for Speed and distance between vehicles:^[18]

Every driver of a vehicle shall in all circumstances have his vehicle under control so as to be able to exercise due and proper care and to be at all times in a position to perform all manœuvres required of him. He shall, when adjusting the speed of his vehicle, pay constant regard to the circumstances, in particular the lie of the land, the state of the road, the condition and load of his vehicle, the weather conditions and the density of traffic, so as to be able to stop his vehicle within his range of forward vision and short of any foreseeable obstruction. He shall slow down and if necessary stop whenever circumstances so require, and particularly when visibility is not good.

Reasonable speed

Map of highest-posted speed limits around the world; click to zoom in. Note: UK and US use mph ("SPEED LIMIT xx"); elsewhere km/h (in circle)

Drivers are required to drive at a safe speed for conditions. In the United States, this requirement is referred to as the basic rule,^[19] but more generally in Britain and elsewhere in common law as the reasonable man requirement.^[20] The German Highway Code (Straßenverkehrs-Ordnung) section on speed begins with a statement^[21] which may be rendered in English:

Any person driving a vehicle may only drive so fast that the car is under control. Speeds must be adapted to the road, traffic, visibility and weather conditions as well as the personal skills and characteristics of the vehicle and load.

In France the law clarifies that even if speed is limited by law and by local authority, the driver assumes the responsibility to control his vehicle's speed, and to reduce speed in various circumstances, such as overtaking a pedestrian, or bicycles, individually or in a group, when overtaking a stopped convoy, when passing a transportation vehicle loading or unloading people or children, in any case where road does not appear clear, or risky, when visibility is low (rain, fog, ...), in turns, when the road goes rapidly down, in road sections that are small, busy, or with homes, near the top of the road, near a crossing when visibility is not sure, when specific lights are used, when overtaking animals.^[22] According to the same article, the fact for a driver to not keep master of its speed or to not reduce it in such cases is penalized.

The US federal government has a similar law—49 CFR 392.14^[23]—which applies in all states as permitted under by the commerce clause and due process clause.;^[24][25] for example California Vehicle Code section 22350 which states that "No person shall drive a vehicle upon a highway at a speed greater than is reasonable ... and in no event at a speed which endangers the safety of persons or property".^[26]

The basic speed law is almost always supplemented by specific maximum or minimum limits, but applies regardless. The reasonable speed may be different than the posted speed limit in conditions such as fog, heavy rain, ice, snow, gravel,^[27] sharp corners, blinding glare,^[28] darkness, crossing traffic,^[29] or when there is an obstructed view of orthogonal traffic—such as by road curvature, parked cars, vegetation, or snow banks—thus limiting the Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA).^[30][31] Basic speed laws are statutized reinforcements of the centuries-old common law negligence doctrine as specifically applied to vehicular speed.^[32]

Excessive speed

Consequential results of basic law violations are often categorized as excessive speed crashes; for example, the leading cause of crashes on German autobahns in 2012 was that category: 6,587 so-called "speed related" crashes claimed the lives of 179 people, which represented almost half (46.3%) of 387 autobahn fatalities in 2012.^[33] However, "excessive speed" does not necessarily mean that the speed limit has been exceeded (if one even exists), rather that police determined at least one party traveled too fast for existing road^[34] or weather^[35] conditions.^[33] Examples of conditions^[36] where drivers may find themselves driving too fast include: wet roadways (rain, snow, or ice), reduced visibility (fog^[37] or "white out" snow^[38]), uneven roads, construction zones,^[39] curves,^[40] intersections, gravel roads,^[41] and heavy traffic. Per distance traveled, consequences of inappropriate speed are more frequent on lower speed, lower quality roads;^[42] in the United States, for example, the "speeding fatality rate for local roads is three times that for Interstates"^[43]

Citations for violations of the basic speed law without a crash^[44] have sometimes been ruled unfairly vague or arbitrary, hence a violation the due process of law, at least in the State of Montana.^[45] Even within states, differing jurisdictions (counties and cities) choose to prosecute similar cases with differing approaches.^[46]

Maximum speed limits

A speed limit sign in Ontario

A speed limit sign on the southbound side of the Garden State Parkway in Paramus, New Jersey.

In France city sign has value of speed limit

A speed limit of 30 km/h

End of speed limit; previous speed limit applies

Most public roads in most countries have a legally assigned numerical maximum speed limit which applies on all roads unless otherwise stated; lower speed limits are often shown on a sign at the start of the restricted section, although the presence of streetlights or the physical arrangement of the road may sometimes also be used instead. A posted speed limit may only apply to that road or to all roads beyond the sign that defines them depending on local laws. In the European Union, large signposts showing the national (default) speed limits of the respective country are usually erected immediately after border crossings, with a repeater sign some 200 to 500 m (660 to 1,640 ft) after the first sign. Some places provide an additional "speed zone ahead" ahead of the restriction and speed limit reminder signs may appear at regular intervals which may be painted on the road surface.

Signs are normally placed on both sides of the road and in some places there are small (less than 1/4 the size of the sign) rectangular orange reflector flags attached to both upper right corners of both signs. The speed limit sign marking the new speed zone may also have the orange flags; this practice can be observed in New York on highways where the speed limit varies such as New York State Route 17.

Maximum speed limits by country in Europe in km/h; highest in UK posted at 70 mph

Signage in many countries, especially in Europe, conforms to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals using black text with a red circle on a white background.

In the United States, the signs are usually rectangular with the words "SPEED LIMIT" and the values in black on a white background. The U.S. Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices provides guidelines for the appearance of speed limit signs. In Alaska and California, speed limits are often labeled "MAXIMUM SPEED" instead. In Oregon, most speed limit signs just say "SPEED" and the number. Canada has similar signs bearing the legend "MAXIMUM" and in km/h instead of mph. "Maximum" is used instead of "Speed Limit" because it has similar meanings in English and French. Australian signs are rectangular but have a red circle like the Vienna Convention signs.^[47]

The speed limit is commonly set at or below the 85th percentile operating speed (being the speed which no more than 15% of traffic is exceeding)^[48][49][50] and in the US is frequently set 4 to 8 mph (6 to 13 km/h) below that speed.^[51] Thus, if the 85th percentile operating speed as measured by a Traffic and Engineering Survey exceeds the design speed, legal protection is given to motorists traveling at such speeds (design speed is "based on conservative assumptions about driver, vehicle and roadway characteristics").^[52] The theory behind the 85th percentile rules is, that as a policy, most citizens should be deemed reasonable and prudent, and limits must be practical to enforce.^[53][54] However, there are some circumstances where motorists do not tend to process all the risks involved, and as a mass choose a poor 85th percentile speed^{[citation needed]}. This rule in substance is a process for voting the speed limit by driving; and in contrast to delegating the speed limit to an engineering expert.^[55][56]

The maximum speed permitted by statute, as posted, is normally based on ideal driving conditions, and the basic speed rule always applies.^[57] Violation of the statute generally raises a rebuttable presumption of negligence.^[58]

In international European roads, speed should be taken into account at design stage^{[citation needed]}.

Minimum speed limits

UK minimum speed limit sign, in mph

Some roads also have "minimum speed limits", where slow speeds can impede traffic flow or be dangerous.^{[citation needed]}

Signs often use blue circles based on the obligatory signs of the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals. A Japanese minimum speed sign has the same design as a maximum speed sign, but with a horizontal line below the number. In the United States of America, they are also identical to their respective maximum speed limit signs with the exception of the text "MINIMUM SPEED".

This minimum speed is not so common, as the risk usually raise with higher speed and not with lower speed.^[16]

Variable speed limits

Example variable speed limit sign in the United States, in mph

Digital speed limit sign for variable speed limits

In 1965, the first known experiments with variable speed limit signs took place on a 30 km stretch of German motorway A8 between Munich and the border city of Salzburg, Austria. Mechanically variable message signs could display speeds of 60, 80 and 100 km/h, "danger zone" or "accident". Personnel monitored traffic using video technology, and manually controlled the signage.^[59] Beginning in the 1970s, additional advanced traffic control systems were put into service. Modern motorway control systems can work without human intervention using various types of sensors to measure traffic flow and weather conditions. In 2009, 1,300 km (810 mi) of German motorways were equipped with such systems.^[60]

In the late 1960s, heavily traveled portions of the New Jersey Turnpike began using variable speed limit signs, in combination with variable message signs. Officials can adjust the speed limit according to weather, traffic conditions, and construction.^[61] More typically, variable speed limits are used on remote stretches of highway in the United States in areas with extreme changes in driving conditions.^[62] For example, variable limits were introduced in October 2010 on a 52-mile (84 km) stretch of Interstate 80 in Wyoming, replacing the winter season speed reduction from 75 to 65 mph (121 to 105 km/h) that had been in place since 2008.^[63][64] This Variable Speed Limit system has been proved to be effective in terms of reducing crash frequency and road closures.^[65][66] Similarly, Interstate 90 at Snoqualmie Pass and other mountain passes in Washington State variable speed limits are used to slow traffic in severe winter weather.^[62][67] As a response to fog-induced chain-reaction collisions involving 99 vehicles in 1990, a variable speed limit system covering 19 miles (31 km) of Interstate 75 in Tennessee was implemented in fog-prone areas around the Hiwassee River.^[68]

A variable speed limit was introduced on part of Britain's M25 motorway in 1995 (on the busiest 14-mile (23 km) section from junction 10 to 16). Initial results suggested savings in journey times, smoother-flowing traffic, as well as a fall in the number of crashes, and the scheme was made permanent in 1997.^[69] However a 2004 National Audit Organization report noted that the business case was unproved; conditions at the site of the Variable Speed Limits trial were not stable before or during the trial, and the study was deemed neither properly controlled nor reliable. Since December 2008 the upgraded section of the M1 between the M25 and Luton has had the facility for variable speed limits.^[70] In January 2010 temporary variable speed cameras on the M1 between J25 and J28 were made permanent.^[71]

New Zealand introduced variable speed limits in February 2001. The first installation was on the Ngauranga Gorge section of dual carriageway on State Highway 1 with steep terrain, numerous bends, high traffic volumes, and higher than average accident rate. The speed limit is normally 80 km/h (50 mph).^[72]

In 2006, Austria undertook a short-term experiment with a variable limit configuration that could increase statutory limits under the most favorable conditions, as well as reduce them. In June, a stretch of motorway was configured with variable speed limits that could increase the general Austrian motorway limit of 130 to 160 km/h (81 to 99 mph).^[73] Then Austrian Transport Minister Hubert Gorbach called the experiment "a milestone in European transport policy-despite all predictions to the contrary"; however, the experiment was discontinued.

In 2014, the Georgia Department of Transportation installed variable speed limits on part of Interstate 285 around Atlanta. These speeds can be as low as 35 mph but are generally set to 65 mph.^[74]

In 2016 the Oregon Department of Transportation has installed a variable speed zone on a 30-mile stretch of Interstate 84 between Baker City and Ladd Canyon. The new electronic signs collect data regarding temperature, skid resistance, and average motorist speed to determine the most effective speed limit for the area before presenting the limit on the sign. This speed zone is scheduled to be activated November 2016.^{[citation needed]}

Roads without speed limits

German border crossing sign showing 50 km/h (31 mph) limit in built-up areas, 100 km/h (62 mph) in rural areas, but a legal advisory 130 km/h (81 mph) limit for the Autobahn (motorway), increasing liability in the case of an accident from driving faster ^[75]

Just over half of the German autobahns have only an advisory speed limit (called in German Richtgeschwindigkeit), 15% have temporary speed limits due to weather or traffic conditions and 33% have permanent speed limits, according to 2008 estimates.^[76] The advisory speed limit applies to any road in Germany, regardless of its classification (e.g. Autobahn, Federal Highway, State Road etc.), outside of towns which is either a dual carriageway or features at least two lanes per direction unless there is another speedlimit posted, though it is less common for non-autobahn roads to be unrestricted. All other roads in Germany, again regardless of classification, outside of towns do have a general speed limit of 100 km/h, which is usually reduced to 80 km/h at Allée-streets (roeads bordered by trees or bushes on one or both sites).^[77] Travel speeds are not regularly monitored in Germany; however, a 2008 report noted that on the autobahn in Niemegk (between Leipzig and Berlin) "significantly more than 60% of road users exceed 130 km/h (81 mph). More than 30% of motorists exceed 150 km/h (93 mph)".^[78] Prior to German reunification in 1990, accident reduction programs in eastern German states were primarily focused on restrictive traffic regulation. Within two years after the opening, availability of high-powered vehicles and a 54% increase in motorized traffic led to a doubling of annual traffic deaths,^[79] despite "interim arrangements [which] involved the continuation of the speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph) on autobahns and of 80 km/h (50 mph) outside cities. An extensive program of the four Es (enforcement, education, engineering, and emergency response) brought the number of traffic deaths back to pre-unification levels after a decade of effort while traffic regulations were conformed to western standards (e.g., 130 km/h (81 mph) freeway advisory limit, 100 km/h (62 mph) on other rural roads, and 0.05 milligrams BAC).^[80]

The Isle of Man has no speed limit on many rural roads; a 2004 proposal to introduce a general speed limits 60 mph and of 70 mph on Mountain Road for safety reasons were not progressed following consultation.
^[5]Measured travel speeds on the island are relatively low.^[81]

Roads formerly without speed limits

Many roads without a maximum limit became permanently limited following the 1973 oil crisis. For example, Switzerland and Austria had no maximum restriction prior to 1973 on motorways and rural roads, but imposed a temporary 100 km/h (62 mph) maximum limit in quick response to higher fuel prices; the limit on motorways was increased to 130 km/h (81 mph) later in 1974.^[82][83][84]

Montana and Nevada were the last remaining U.S. states relying exclusively on the basic rule, without a specific, numeric rural speed limit prior to the National Maximum Speed Law of 1974.^[85] After repeal of Federal speed mandates in 1996, Montana was the only state to revert to the Basic Rule for daylight rural speed regulation. The Montana Supreme Court ruled that the Basic Rule was too vague to allow citation, prosecution, and conviction of a driver; in other words, enforcement was a violation of the due process requirement of the Montana Constitution.^[86] In response, Montana's legislature imposed a 75 mph (121 km/h) limit on rural freeways in 1999.

In Australia's Northern Territory, after the removal of open limits in 2007, sections of the Stuart Highway had no limits as part of an open speed limit trial from 2014 to 2016.

Method

Several methods exist to set up a speed limit:^[87]

• Engineering


• Harm minimization,


• Economic optimization


• Expert system

Enforcement

Gatso speed camera

Speed limit enforcement is the action taken by appropriately empowered authorities to check that road vehicles are complying with the speed limit. Methods used include roadside speed traps set up and operated by the police and automated roadside speed camera systems, which may incorporate the use of an automatic number plate recognition system.

In 2012, in UK, 30% of drivers did not comply with speed limits.^[16]

In Europe, between 2009 and 2012, 20% of European drivers have been fined for excessive speed.^[16]
In 2012 in Europe, 62% of people supported the idea to set up speed-limiting devices.^[16]

The tolerance level needs to be adequate to not add confusion to the driver. One efficient scheme consist in penalty points and charges for speeding just a few over the speed limit.^[16]

Another possibility is to make the necessary work to change the road so that the driver can consider the speed limit is legitimate in regard to the road. This can be achieved by implementing traffic calming measure, vehicle activated signs, or safety cameras.^[88]

The city of Munich has adopted Self-explaining roads: roadway widths, intersection controls and crossing types have been harmonized in regard to speed limit, so that the driver can guess the speed limit even with no sign.^[88]

Effectiveness

To be effective and applied by drivers, the speed limits need to be perceived as credible.^[16] This mean that the speed limit should be adequate in regard to some factors such as, for instance, the view ahead and the view to the right.^[16]

To be effective, speed limit needs to be set up with road infrastructure, education or enforcement activity.^[16]

A 1998 US Federal Highway administration report cited a number of studies regarding the effects of reductions in speed limits and the observed changes in speeding, fatalities, injuries and property damage which followed:^{[n 2]}

Annual surveys of speed on South Dakota Interstate roads show that from 2000 to 2011, the average speed rose from 71 to 74 mph; South Dakota increased its maximum speed limit from 65 to 75 mph (120 km/h) in 1996.^[91]

The Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Speed and Speed Limits report sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration published in 1998 found that changing speed limits on low and moderate speed roads appeared to have no significant effect on traffic speed or the number of crashes, whilst on high-speed roads such as freeways, increased speed limits generally resulted in higher traffic speeds and more crashes. It states that limited evidence suggests that speed limits have a positive effect on a system wide basis.^{[n 3]}

Research in 1998 showed that the reduction of some 30 mph (48 km/h) United Kingdom speed limits to 20 mph (32 km/h) had achieved only a 1 mph drop in speeds and no discernible reduction in accidents; '20 mph speed limit zones' which use self enforcing traffic calming achieved average speed reductions of 10 mph, child pedestrian accidents were reduced by 70% and child cyclist accidents by 48%.^[92]

Zones where speeds are set at 30 km/h (or 20 mph) are gaining popularity^[93] as they are found to be effective at reducing crashes and increasing community cohesion.^[94]

Studies undertaken in conjunction with Australia's move from 60 km/h (37 mph) speed limits to 50 km/h (31 mph) in built-up areas and found that the measure was effective in reducing speed and also the frequency and severity of crashes.^[95]

A study of the impact of the replacement of 60 km/h (37 mph) with 50 km/h (31 mph) speed limits in New South Wales, Australia, showed only a 0.5 km/h drop in urban areas and a 0.7 km/h drop in rural areas. The report noted that widespread community compliance would require a combination of strategies including traffic calming treatments.^[96]

A 1999 study found that the U.S. states that increased speed limits in the wake of the repeal of federally mandated speed limits had a 15% increase in fatalities.^[97]

Information campaigns are also used by authorities to support speed limits, for example the Speeding. No one thinks big of you. campaign in Australia 2007.

Justification

Speed limits are set primarily to balance road traffic safety concerns with the effect on travel time and mobility. Speed limits are also sometimes used to reduce consumption of fuel or in response to environmental concerns.^[98]

Some speed limit have also been initiated to avoid import too much gas-oil during 1973 oil crisis.

Road traffic safety

The Pan-American Highway with central median and no freestanding obstructions increasing level of safety at high speed

According to a 2004 report from the World Health Organization a total of 22% of all 'injury mortality' worldwide were from road traffic injuries in 2002^{[n 4]} and without 'increased efforts and new initiatives' casualty rates would increase by 65% between 2000 and 2020.^{[n 5]} The report identified that the speed of vehicles was 'at the core of the problem^{[n 6]} and said that speed limits should be set appropriately for the road function and design along with physical measures related to the road and the vehicle and effective enforcement by the police.^{[n 7]} Road incidents are said to be the leading cause of deaths among children 10 – 19 years of age (260,000 children die a year, 10 million are injured).^[99] They are also occasionally set to reduce vehicle emissions or fuel use.

Maximum speed limits place an upper limit on speed choice and if obeyed can reduce the differences in vehicle speeds by drivers using the same road at the same time.^[100] Traffic engineers observe that the likelihood of a crash happening is significantly higher if vehicles are traveling at speeds faster or slower than the mean speed of traffic;^[101] when severity is taken into account the risk is lowest for those traveling at or below the median speed and "increases exponentially for motorists travelling much faster".^{[n 8]}

Traffic calming can be effective on lower speed roads

It is desirable to attempt to reduce the speed of road vehicles in some circumstances because the kinetic energy involved in a motor vehicle collision is proportional to the square of the speed at impact. The probability of a fatality is, for typical collision speeds, empirically correlated to the fourth power of the speed difference (depending on the type of collision, not necessarily the same as travel speed) at impact,^[102] rising much faster than kinetic energy.

Typically motorways have higher speed limits than conventional roads because motorways have features which decrease the likelihood of collisions and severity of impacts. For example, motorways separate opposing traffic and crossing traffic, employ traffic barriers, and prohibit the most vulnerable users such as pedestrians and bicyclists. Germany's crash experience illustrates the relative effectiveness of these strategies on crash severity: on autobahns 22 people died per 1000 injury crashes, a lower rate than the 29 deaths per 1,000 injury accidents on conventional rural roads; however, the rural risk is five times higher than on urban roads – speeds are higher on rural roads and autobahns than urban roads, increasing the severity potential of a crash.^[103] The net effect of speeds, crash probability, and impact mitigation strategies may be measured by the rate of deaths per billion-travel-kilometers: the autobahn fatality rate is 2 deaths per billion-travel-kilometers, lower than either the 8.7 rate on rural roads or the 5.3 rate in urban areas; the overall national fatality rate was 5.6, slightly higher than urban rate and more than twice that of autobahns.^[104]

The 2009 technical report An Analysis of Speeding-Related Crashes:Definitions and the Effects of Road Environments by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration showed that about 55 percent of all speeding-related crashes in fatal crashes had "exceeding posted speed limits" among their crash factors, and 45 percent had "driving too fast for conditions" among their crash factors. However, the authors of the report did not attempt to determine whether the factors were actually a crash cause, contributor, or an unrelated factor.^[105] Furthermore, separate research finds that only 1.6% of crashes are "caused" by drivers that exceed the posted speed limit.^[106] Finally, exceeding the posted limit may not be a remarkable factor in crash analysis as there exist roadways where virtually all motorists are in technical violation of the law.^[107]

The speed limit will also take note of the speed at which the road was designed to be driven (the design speed) which is defined in the US as "a selected speed used to determine the various geometric design features of the roadway"^[108] However traffic engineers recognize that "operating speeds and even posted speed limits can be higher than design speeds without necessarily compromising safety"^[109] since design speed is "based on conservative assumptions about driver, vehicle and roadway characteristics".^[52]

Vision Zero, which envision reducing road fatalities and serious injuries to zero by 2020, suggests the following "possible long term maximum travel speeds related to the infrastructure, given best practice in vehicle design and 100% restraint use":^[110]

A stack of speed limit signs

"Roads with no possibility of a side impact or frontal impact" are sometimes designated as Type 1 (motorways/freeways/Autobahns), Type 2 ("2+2 roads") or Type 3 ("2+1 roads").^[112] These roadways have crash barriers separating opposing traffic, limited access, grade separation and prohibitions on slower and more vulnerable road users. Undivided rural roads can be quite dangerous even with speed limits that appear low by comparison. For example, in 2011, Germany's 100 km/h (62 mph)-limited rural roads had a fatality rate of 8.7 deaths per billion travel-km, over four times higher than the autobahn rate of 2 deaths.^[104] Autobahns accounted for 31% of German road travel in 2011,^[104] but just 11% (453 of 4,009) of traffic deaths.

In a 2018, an IRTAD WG published a document which recommended maximum speed limits, taking into account forces the human body can tolerate and survive.^[113]

Fuel efficiency

Fuel efficiency sometimes affects speed limit selection. The United States instituted a National Maximum Speed Law of 55 mph (89 km/h) as part of the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act in response to the 1973 oil crisis to reduce fuel consumption.^[114] According to a report published in 1986 by The Heritage Foundation, a Conservative advocacy group, the law was widely disregarded by motorists and hardly reduced consumption at all.^[115] In 2009 The American Trucking Associations called for a 65 mph speed limit and also national fuel economy standards claiming that the lower speed limit was not effective at saving fuel.^[116]
European studies have claimed that, whereas the effects of specific speed reduction schemes on particulate emissions from trucks are ambiguous, lower maximums speed for trucks consistently result in lower emissions of CO₂ and better fuel efficiency.^[117]

Environmental considerations

Speed limits can also be used to improve local air quality issues or other factors affecting environmental quality^[117]
for example the "environmental speed limits" in the United States including one in an area of Texas.^[118]

The European Union is also increasingly using speed limits as in response to environmental concerns.^[98]

Advocacy

Speed limits, and especially some of the methods used to attempt to enforce them, have always been controversial. There are a variety of notable organisations and individuals who, for a variety of often passionately held views, oppose or support the use of speed limits or the way they are enforced.

Opposition

Speed limits, and their enforcement have been opposed by various groups and for various reasons since their inception. Historically, the AA was formed in 1905, initially to warn members about speed traps.^[119]

In more recent times some advocacy groups seek to have certain speed limits as well as other measures removed. For example, automated camera enforcement has been criticised by motoring advocacy groups the Association of British Drivers,^[120][121] the North American National Motorists Association,^[122][123] and the German Auto Club.^[124]

Arguments used by those advocating a relaxation of speed limits or their removal include:

• A 1994 peer-reviewed paper by Charles A. Lave et al. titled Did the 65 mph Speed Limit Save Lives? stated that evidence that a higher speed limit may be positive on a system wide in the United States by shifting more traffic to these safer roads.^[125]
  


• A 1998 report in the Wall Street Journal title 'Highways are safe at any speed' stated that when speed limits are set artificially low, tailgating, weaving and speed variance (the problem of some cars traveling significantly faster than others) make roads less safe.^[126]
  


• In 2010, German Auto Club (a major motoring organisation) argued that an autobahn speed limit was unnecessary because numerous countries with a general highway speed limit had worse safety records than Germany, for example Denmark, Belgium, Austria, and the United States.^[124]
  


• In 2008, the German Automobile Manufacturer's Association called general limits "patronizing",^[127] arguing instead for variable speed limits. The Association also stated that "raising the speed limits in Denmark (in 2004 from 110 km/h to 130 km/h)^[128][129] and Italy (2003 increase on six-lane highways from 130 km/h to 150 km/h) had no negative impact on traffic safety. The number of accidental deaths even declined".^[130]
  


• 
  Safe Speed, a UK advocacy organisation campaigns for higher speed limits^[131] and to scrap speed cameras on the basis that the benefits were exaggerated and that they may actually increase casualty levels;^[132] their ePetition to the UK government in 2007 calling for speed cameras to be scrapped received over 25,000 signatures.^[133]
  

Support

Various other advocacy groups press for stricter limits and better enforcement. The Pedestrians Association was formed in the United Kingdom in 1929 to protect the interests of the pedestrian. Their president published a critique of motoring legislation and the influence of motoring groups in 1947 title 'Murder most foul' which laid out in an emotional but detailed way the situation as they saw it and called for tighter speed limits.^[134] Historically, the Pedestrians' Association and the Automobile Association were described as "bitterly opposed" in the early years of United Kingdom motoring legislation.^[135] More recently organisations such as RoadPeace, Twenty is Plenty, and Vision Zero have campaigned for lower speed limits in residential areas. In the United States, advocacy groups favoring stricter limits and better enforcement include the Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety, Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the National Safety Council.

Signage

In most of the world speed limit signs display the limitation within a red circle. This design follows the style set out by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, with the exception of United States and Canada.^{[citation needed]} All countries globally worldwide (except the United Kingdom and United States) use metric speed limits in kilometres per hour.^{[citation needed]} Metric signs are optional in the United States though less commonly seen, while Samoa uses both units. In Ontario, Canada, the type, location, and frequency of speed limit signs is covered by regulation 615 of the Ontario Highway Traffic Act.^[136]

Maximum speed limit

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Speed limit sign for 50 km/h (Vienna Convention Sign C14, most of the world follows this pattern)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  UK sign for 50 mph
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Standard speed limit sign used in Australia showing 50 km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Alternative Vienna Convention sign with a yellow background used in some countries, such as Sweden, Finland and Iceland
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Ireland includes the symbol "km/h" since going metric in 2005
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Japan uses blue numerals; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Samoa uses both miles per hour and kilometres per hour
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  The United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia (km/h) use both Western Arabic and Eastern Arabic numerals
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Canada (displayed in km/h)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Canada (Ontario)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Canada (Yukon and British Columbia)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (in mph)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (Oregon variant)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (metric)
  

  
  

  
  

Minimum speed limit

Minimum speed limit signs are usually a blue circle with a white border and the limit in white. Some South American countries (e.g.: Argentina), use a red border. Japan and South Korea use their normal speed limit sign, with a line below the limit.

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Common minimum speed limit sign
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  The United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia (km/h) use both Western Arabic and Eastern Arabic numerals
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Argentina, km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Canada, km/h (rare outside Quebec province)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Chile; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Colombia; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Japan; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Philippines; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  South Korea; km/h
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States; mph
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (dual maximum and minimum speeds)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (metric)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States (metric, dual maximum and minimum speeds)
  

  
  

  
  

Special speed limits

In some countries, speed limits may apply to certain classes of vehicles, or special conditions such as night-time. Usually these speed limits will be reduced from the normal limit for safety reasons.

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Australia - Speed limit during certain times
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Australia - Road Train speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  New Zealand - Limited Speed Zone (Maximum speed limit is 100 km/h, reduces to 50 km/h if dangerous conditions exist such as bad weather)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Romania - Trucks speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States - Roadworks zone speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States - Trucks speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States - Towed vehicles speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  United States - Night time speed limit
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Unique speed limit sign in the United States on evacuation routes requiring drivers to maintain the maximum safe speed
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Safe speed sign in South Korea
  

  
  

  
  

Speed limit derestriction

In some countries, derestriction signs are used to mark where a speed zone ends. The speed limit beyond the sign is the prevailing limit for the general area, for example the sign might be used to show the end of an urban area. In the United Kingdom, the sign means that the national speed limit applies (60 mph on open roads, 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways). In New Zealand it means you are on an open road, but the maximum legal speed of 100 km/h still applies^[137] On roads without a general speed limits, such as German Autobahn, a portion of Stuart Highway, and rural areas on the Isle of Man, it really means end of all quantitative speed limits.

• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Common maximum speed limit derestriction sign
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Common minimum speed limit derestriction sign
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Common advisory speed limit derestriction sign
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Australia ^[138] now relatively rare
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Australia
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Belgium, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland pre-2005, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and Switzerland
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Japan
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Japan - Left arrow(direction of derestriction)
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Philippines
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Philippines
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  End speed limit 35 mph United States
  

  
  

  
  


• 
  

  

  
  

  
  

  End speed limit (custom) United States (archaic)
  

  
  

  
  

Advisory speed limit

Advisory speed limits may provide a safe suggested speed in an area, or warn of the safe maximum speed for dangerous curves.

Technology

Nowadays, some European cars include some in-vehicle systems that supports drivers’ compliance with the speed limit, known as Intelligent Speed Adaptation (or ISA). ISA supports drivers in complying with the speed limit in various part of the network, while speed limiters for heavy good vehicles and coaches only limit the maximum speed. Those systems have positive effects on speed behaviour and imply large safety effects, while negative side effects are few documented. Speed-limiting device such as ISA are considered useful by 25% of European car drivers.^[139]

See also

Notes

References

Documents referenced from 'Notes' section

Other references for article

Further reading

• 
  Actual Speeds on the Roads Compared to the Posted Limits, Final Report 551, Arizona Dept of Transportation, October 2004.


• 
  Effects of Raising and Lowering Speed Limits on Selected Roadway Sections, United States Publication No. FHWA-RD-97-084, January 1997.


• 
  Effect of 20 mph traffic speed zones on road injuries in London, 1986-2006: controlled interrupted time series analysis British Medical Journal 2009.


• 
  Engineering Speed Limits - FHWA Safety Program United States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration, Office of Safety, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington DC 20590


• "Reducing Speeding-Related Crashes Involving Passenger Vehicles." National Transportation Safety Board, 490 L'Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, D.C. 20594, July 2017. Retrieved from https://www.ntsb.gov/safety/safety-studies/Documents/ss1701.pdf.


• 
  Special Report 254: Managing Speed, Transportation Research Board, 1998.


• 
  Speed: Understanding Design, Operating, and Posted Speed Texas Transportation Institute, College Station, TX. Research Report 1465-1. March 1996. R.A. Krammes, K. Fitzpatrick, J.D. Blaschke, D.B. Fambro.


• 
  The Speeding Driver: Who, How and Why? A research report by the Scottish government into the psychology of the speeding driver.


• 
  Transport, Local Government and the Regions - Ninth Report A comprehensive UK report into the effects of speeding.


• 
  Elvik, R. (2012). "Speed Limits, Enforcement, and Health Consequences". Annual Review of Public Health. 33: 225–238. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124634. PMID 22224882.
  


• 
  "3.11 Fartsgrenser". Trafikksikkerhetshåndboken (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Transportøkonomisk Institutt. 2000. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  

Law Review

• 
  R. A. Vinluan (2008). "Indefiniteness of automobile speed regulations as affecting validity". American Law Reports--Annotated, 3rd Series. 6. The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company. p. 1326.
  


• 
  C. C. Marvel (2010). "Meaning of "residence district," "business district," "school area," and the like, in statutes and ordinances regulating speed of motor vehicles". American Law Reports--Annotated, 2nd Series. 50. The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company. p. 343.
  

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Speed limit signs and Driver speed and relative risk of an accident.

• Global map of speed limits from Wikispeedia


• A Walk Through The History of Speed Limit Signs in The US


• John F. Carr's State Traffic and Speed Laws


• Global map of speed limits from OpenStreetMap